Observation in psychology. Types of observation in psychology

In this article, we suggest that you consider one of the basic techniques that include research methods in psychology. Observation involves a purposeful and deliberate perception of the object of investigation. In social sciences, its application presents the greatest difficulty, since the subject and the object of research is a person, which means that subjective assessments of the observer, his attitude and attitudes can be brought into the results.

Observation is one of the basic empirical methods, the simplest and most common in natural conditions. In order for his results to be accurate, the observer should remain aloof, be unnoticed, or become part of the group into which the observation object enters, to mix with it so as not to attract attention. The researcher must record and evaluate events related to the purpose of observation.

Elements of this technique include theoretical thinking (various methodical techniques, control of results, comprehension) and quantitative analysis (factor analysis, scaling, etc.).

Studying the basic methods of psychology, observation should be noted without fail and, if possible, applied. After all, this is one of the main techniques used by modern science.

It must be said that observation in psychology is necessarily somewhat subjective. The degree of subjectivity can reduce the rejection of quick conclusions and generalizations, the repeated observation, and the use of other methods along with it. It is better that several observers participate in the study at once. To improve the effectiveness of this method, various observation maps and questionnaires are often used. They allow you to concentrate on the most important points and not be distracted by the nonessential ones.

Distinctive features of observation

Observation in psychology is always carried out for a specific purpose, according to a preplanned plan, equipped with various items necessary for fixing the results and realizing the process itself.

This method allows to collect empirical data, to form representations about objects of research, and also to check various guesses and theories connected with it.

Observation realizes knowledge through direct contact, based on the testimony of the senses, therefore it is the first scientific method in history.

Methods of psychology (observation, experiment, etc.) have their own characteristics. These features make it possible to distinguish them as a separate type of research. Observation in psychology differs in the type of attitude toward the object (for example, in a conversation or experiment, the specialist creates special conditions that cause this or that phenomenon), the presence of direct contact with it (which is absent in the study of products of activity, and is not always present in the experiment).

From the methodological point of view, it is inherent in universality, that is, the possibility of using observation in relation to a wide range of various psychic phenomena, as well as flexibility (the possibility of changing the "field of coverage" of an object or hypothesis in the process of research) and minimum requirements for technical, procedural hardware. In this, the methods of psychology observation, experiment and others are very different.

In the scientific literature, the terms "observation", "objective observation" and "external use" are often used as synonyms. Psychic life - a complex phenomenon, inaccessible to direct eyes from the outside, hidden from prying eyes. Therefore, initially the only method of psychology was introspection (introspection), and only with the development of science external observation began to be applied when the observation of a person (psychology, sociology and other sciences) was carried out.

In domestic psychology, the basic principles of observation are described in the works of such scientists as SL Rubinshtein, LS Vygotsky, AN Leontiev.

Types of objects

Observation and experiment in psychology, as well as other methods, can have the following objects of investigation:

- a person (or an animal);

- a whole group of people.

The object of observation can be, as a rule, only the external component of activity (movements, movements, contact, joint actions, speech acts, facial expressions, external manifestations of vegetative reactions, and also various situations, both spontaneous and organized).

Observation rules

When applying this method, there are a number of rules:

1. Systematic, multiple studies should be conducted in changing and repetitive situations in order to highlight regularities and random coincidences.

2. Do not make hasty conclusions, you should certainly make alternative assumptions about what is behind this or that behavior, and check them.

3. Private situations and conditions must be compared with the general ones, considering them in the context of different communities (the person as a whole, the general situation, the stage of mental development, for example, with respect to the child, etc.), since such an examination often completely changes the psychological The meaning of the observed.

In order to minimize inaccuracies and errors of the research, to ensure its objectivity, as already noted, it is necessary that the researcher does not give out his presence. It is necessary to make it so that the observer can see, while at the same time remaining unnoticed as a researcher. The peculiarities of observation in psychology presuppose, if possible, the least participation of a subject in it.

This can be achieved by the following:

- "become familiar", that is, to make the object of research accustomed to the presence of an observer - often to be present in his field of vision, as if not paying attention to him;

- explain the presence of an outsider with some purpose acceptable to the object of study, for example, the teacher at school to say that you would like to attend the lesson in order to master his technique;

- replace the observer with a technique that records psychic phenomena (eg, a video camera), which will ensure accurate fixation and will less confuse the observed;

- carry out the study from a dark room adjacent to the one where the observed, for example, separated from it by special Gesell glass, with one-sided light conductivity;

- use a hidden camera.

The goal should be clearly formed, because only in very rare cases, random observations lead to important discoveries.

Types of observation

Types of observation in psychology are very diverse. There is no comprehensive unified classification, so we list only the main ones.

1. Systematic and random. Systematic is characterized by regularity, repeatability throughout the study period. The intervals of time between observations are determined by external conditions, the nature of the object under study.

2. Open or hidden. These types of observation in psychology characterize the position of the observer to the object of research. For example, with hidden observation, the researcher looks through the glass of Gesell to the object of study, and when open, the observed person also sees the researcher.

As subspecies, this includes the included observation, when the subject himself is a member of the group, a participant in the events. The included observation can be either open or hidden (for example, if the researcher does not report that he is such, to the other members of the group).

Some types of surveillance are, as it were, intermediate between the included and the unincorporated observation. For example, when the teacher studies the behavior of students during the lesson: here the researcher is included in the situation, but differently than the objects of study, their positions are unequal in relation to the management of the situation.

3. Field and laboratory. The field is conducted in the natural for the observed conditions, implying the absence of any kind of initiative on the part of the researcher. This observation in psychology makes it possible to study the natural life of the observed object. Its drawbacks include labor intensity, as well as the uncontrollability of the situation by the researcher, the impossibility of systematic observation. The laboratory provides an opportunity to study the object in a controlled, convenient for the researcher situation, but can significantly distort the results of the study.

4. Longitude, periodic and single. These species are allocated according to the time of organization of the study. Longitudinal ("longitudinal") is carried out for a long time, often several years, and also involves continuous contact of the observer with the object. The results of such research are marked in the form of diaries, which broadly cover the lifestyle, behavior, and various habits of the studied object.

Periodic observation is the most common type of temporary research organization. It is carried out for some specified time intervals. Single, or single, observations are conducted in the form of a description of a single case, which can be either typical or unique in the study of a particular phenomenon or process.

Units of observation, their registration

Units of observation are simple or complex actions of the object of research, accessible to the observer. For their registration, special documents are used:

1. Observation card. It is necessary to register certain characteristics in a formalized and often coded form. In the course of the study, several such cards can be used, separately for each unit of study.

2. The protocol of observation. It is designed to record combined results in formalized and informal procedures. It reflects the interaction of observation cards.

3. Diary of observations. Psychology often uses a variety of observation logs. They are necessary in order to fix the results of the research. They indicate not only various information about the object itself, but also the observations made by the observer in the course of studying.

When recording results, different film and video equipment can also be used.

Example of using observation

A good way to uncover the method of observation in psychology is the examples. Let's consider a concrete example, where this technique is used.

For example, a military researcher needs to find out which military personnel are inclined to various offenses, for example, money-grubbing, drunkenness, and violence. The object of observation is the newly arrived soldiers.

First, the researcher gathers through the officers of the units, to which the research objects belong, information about them. This information can be obtained, for example, from accompanying newly arrived to the place of service from the recruiting station, through conversation, analysis of documents. At the same time, it is necessary to pay special attention to the social environment in which the soldier grew up (a prosperous or unsuccessful, full or incomplete family, belonging or not belonging to a group with negative value orientations), to his behavior (whether or not criminal or administrative responsibility was involved , The presence or absence of negative characteristics from work or study), on his psychological and physiological characteristics (traits, level of development, etc.).

Further the researcher marks potentially dysfunctional soldiers, analyzing the received information.

At the same time, the observer defines special signs that allow one to judge the propensity of objects to deviate behavior. It is believed that the people with deviant behavior are soldiers whose behavior does not correspond to the moral and legal norms accepted in this society. This may be, for example, an unfair attitude to official duties, disobedience to commanders, insulting colleagues, stubbornness, attempts at domination, etc.

Proceeding from these signs, the researchers, using mostly random observation, gather information about all the soldiers, and then a detailed research program is compiled.

The student identifies situations, categories and units of observation, prepares the tools (protocols, cards, observation diaries).

Example of observation situations

Implement a method of observation in psychology examples of typical situations, among which it is worth noting:

- Training sessions. During such activities, the overall level of training, skills, knowledge, the degree of diligence of the soldiers is determined, the level of team cohesion as a whole, the degree of its aspiration to acquire knowledge is revealed.

- Breaks, hours of leisure. In these situations, the observer may be interested in topics of conversation, leaders and their influence on the other participants in the dialogues, different opinions and points of view of the soldiers.

- Housekeeping. Here, the attitude towards the work of the students being studied, the various relationships between the military during the performance of economic work, as well as the leaders and subordinates, may be of interest. It is important to note that in the presence of large amounts of labor, as well as in critical situations (in case of an earthquake, fire, flood), such qualities as endurance, purposefulness, cohesion, mutual assistance of members of the collective are especially evident.

- Change of guard, divorce and service. In these situations, the degree of military training, the level of skills and abilities, the motivation to fulfill duties, the persuasion of soldiers are revealed.

- Evening check. Here you can pay attention to the general discipline, the military response to official duties and their distribution.

A special role is played by various conflict situations, in which relations between soldiers and their behavior are most clearly manifested. It is important to note the instigators, and also to indicate the reasons, dynamics and outcome of the conflict, to determine the roles of various participants.

Observation in educational psychology

This type of research is used mainly in studying the behavioral characteristics of students and teachers, the style of their activities. It is important to observe two basic conditions: the observed person should not know what is the object of the study; The researcher should not interfere with the activity of the observed.

Observation in social psychology should be carried out according to a pre-designed program. It is necessary to fix only those manifestations of the activity of objects that correspond to the objectives and objectives of the research being conducted. It is best to use video shooting, as it allows you to study phenomena more than once and provides maximum reliability of the findings.

In pedagogical psychology, in general, unincorporated observation is used, but sometimes included can also be carried out, allowing the researcher to experience by his own experience what experiences experienced are. However, in this case, we should especially try to maintain objectivity.

Observation in Developmental Psychology

Here it can be either solid or selective. If the observation covers many aspects of the behavior observed simultaneously, for a long time, and is carried out with respect to either one or several children, it is called continuous. In this case, there is often a certain selectivity: the criterion of selection is novelty. In the implementation of selective observation, only one specific aspect of the behavior of the child being studied or its behavior in individual, certain situations is indicated and estimated at certain intervals of time (the following examples are implemented in psychology: Ch. Darwin observed the expression of his son's emotions, and the domestic linguist AN Gvozdev recorded his child's speech during the first eight years of his life).

The value of this technique in age psychology is that for the application of this method there are no age limits for the object under study. Tracking the life of the observed for a long time allows us to find critical moments, critical periods in its development.

Observation in psychology, the examples of which we have just mentioned, are most often used to collect data at the initial stage of the study. But sometimes it is used as the main method.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I would like to note once again that it is possible to fix and observe only the external results of a person's mental activity and their manifestations. However, a number of important psychological components explaining behavior, remains outwardly not manifested, and therefore, can not be fixed by observation. So, for example, one can not follow mental activity, various hidden emotional experiences and states.

Therefore, even where the surveillance method is the primary, leading, along with it, a number of other techniques are used, such as a survey, a conversation, and other additional methods. Observation and experimentation in psychology are also often used together.