Types of theories. Mathematical theories. Scientific theories

How many theories can a modern person see and hear! And they can be very different directions. And this is not surprising, because there are different kinds of theories. This is due to the fact that different approaches are used to create them, and they themselves are aimed at various aspects of the activities of human society. So, there is a political theory, mathematical, economic, social. But let's take a closer look at this.

general information

In the methodology of science, the word "theory" can be understood in two main senses: narrow and broad. The first of them implies the highest form of organization of knowledge, which gives a holistic view of the essential links and patterns in a certain area of reality. In this case, for the scientific theory , the presence of systemic harmony, the logical dependence between elements, the derivability of its content from a certain set of concepts and statements is characteristic (but this should be done according to certain logical and methodological rules). This is all and organizes a basic theory. And what is meant by it in the broad sense of the word?

The theory of science in this case is a complex of ideas, ideas and views that are aimed at interpreting a certain phenomenon (or group of similar incidents). Do not you find anything surprising? If you think about it, then in that case almost every person has his own theories. For the sake of justice it is necessary to say that in the majority they belong to the sphere of everyday psychology. Thanks to them, a person arranges his idea of justice, goodness, love, the meaning of life, the relationship of the sexes, posthumous existence, and the like.

Why do we need a theory?

They act as methodological "cells" of scientific knowledge. Modern theory contains the available knowledge, as well as the procedures by which it was obtained and justified. That is, it has the basic "building" material - knowledge. They are connected by their judgments. Already from them, according to the rules of logic, make inferences.

Regardless of what kinds of theories are considered, they should always be based on one or even several ideas (hypotheses) that offer solutions for a particular problem (or even their whole complex). That is, in order to be called a full-fledged science, it is sufficient to have only one well-developed theory. An example is geometry.

Is it easy to comprehend the theory?

First, we will understand the concepts, inferences, problems and hypotheses. They can often fit in one sentence. For the theory, this is also practically impossible. So, to present and substantiate it quite often even whole works are written. It is sufficient, as an example, to cite the theory of universal gravitation, formulated by Newton. For its justification, he wrote a voluminous work in 1987, which is called "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy." It took him more than 20 years to write. But this does not mean that the basic theories are so complex that they can not be understood by an ordinary citizen.

First of all, it should be noted that the theory can be stated in a somewhat schematized (and, correspondingly, compressed) version. This approach stipulates that all secondary, minor, and often justified parenthetical arguments and supporting facts will be removed. In addition, as already mentioned above, it is inherent for each person to construct his own theories, which are a generalization of his own experience and his analysis. Therefore, if you want to comprehend science will have to complicate and often performed tasks.

Types of theories

They are divided on the basis of their structure, which in turn is based on methods of constructing theoretical knowledge. There are such kinds of theories:

• Axiomatic.
• Inductive.
• Hypothetical-deductive.

For each of them uses its own database, which is presented in the form of three different approaches.

Axiomatic theories

Such theories have been established in science since the time of antiquity. They are the personification of the rigor and accuracy of scientific knowledge. The most famous representatives of this kind are mathematical theories. As an example, you can use formatted arithmetic. Besides it, considerable attention was also paid to formal logic and certain sections of physics (thermodynamics, electrodynamics and mechanics). A classic example in this case is the Euclidean geometry. It was often addressed not only for knowledge, but also as an example of scientific rigor. What is important in this species?

Here three components are of greatest interest: postulates (axioms), deduced meaning (theorems) and proofs (rules, conclusions). Since then, the mechanism for searching and decorating the solution has changed significantly. Particularly fruitful in this regard was the 20th century. Then, both new approaches and a fundamental level of knowledge were developed (an example of probability theory). They continue to be developed and created now, but so far there is nothing that could radically change our life.

Inductive theories

It is believed that in the pure form they are absent, since they do not provide apodictic and logically based knowledge. Therefore, many people say that inductive methods should be understood by them . They are characteristic in the first place for natural science. This situation is due to the fact that it is here that you can start with experiments and facts, and finish with theoretical generalizations.

Although it should be recognized that several centuries ago inductive theories were very popular. But because of the size of spending on scientific delights, they have receded into the background. After all, think about how the probability theory would be formulated if we could approach it in a practical way! Inductive withdrawal usually begins with the analysis and comparison of the data obtained during the experiment or observation. If they find something similar or common in them, then they are generalized as a universal position.

Hypothetical-deductive theories

They are specific to the natural sciences. The creator of this species is Galileo Galilei. In addition, he also laid the foundations of experimental natural science. Later they found application among a large number of physicists, which contributed to the consolidation of the established glory. Their essence lies in the fact that the researcher puts forward bold assumptions, the truth of which is uncertain. Then, deductions are deduced from hypotheses using the deductive method . This process continues until such an assertion is obtained so that it can be compared with experience. If the empirical test confirms its adequacy, then the conclusion is drawn that the initial hypotheses were correct.

What components should a scientific theory have?

There are many classifications. In order not to be confused, let us take as the basis the one proposed by Shvirev. The following components are obligatory for it:

• Initial empirical basis. This includes the facts and knowledge fixed to this point, which were obtained as a result of experiments and require justification.
• The initial theoretical basis. By this means a set of primary axioms, postulates, assumptions and general laws, which together will allow to describe the idealized object of consideration.
• Logics. This is understood as the establishment of a framework for conclusions and evidence.
• Set of statements. This includes evidence, which is the main body of available knowledge.

Using

It should be noted that theories are the basis for the substantiation of a number of processes, as well as various practices. Moreover, they can be composed both on the basis of practical experience and on the basis of analytical reflection. Therefore, there are, for example, different types of theory of state and law. And it should be noted that the same subject can be described from different points of view, and its characteristics, respectively, will vary.

In some places this is amenable to standardization, as evidenced by the types of economic theory, and over time new lines are being outlined. Nevertheless, a number of provisions within them still attracts fans to criticize. Although for some assumptions (and with time and foundations in science), it is sometimes necessary to accumulate a certain amount of knowledge. Before the theories of the origin of man Lamarck and Darwin were created, an extensive classification of organisms was carried out. The study of such features is the history of science. As shown by this discipline, the full development of the theory (which includes its modification, refinement, improvement and extrapolation to new areas) may not extend over time in a single century.

Truth

An important characteristic for any theory is its practical confirmation, on which the degree of its validity depends. Here, for example, we have a certain political theory, which says that in this situation it is necessary to act in such a way. If there is no practical confirmation or refutation of its effectiveness, then the decision on its application lies on people endowed with power.

And in the case when there is a certain validity about it, one can already study the existing experience and make an appropriate decision about whether or not to implement it. In this considerable service is provided by the theory of analysis. Thanks to the methodology developed in its framework, using the scientific method, it is possible to calculate the probability of successful implementation, and also to find the place of "pitfalls".